What is a shaman: Introduction to Shamanism

An Introduction to Shamanism

Who Is a Shaman?Shamanism is a multi-faceted phenomenon, characterized by a variety of complex practices and actions that are challenging to fully comprehend. Its origins can be traced back to human societies long before the advent of writing or urban settlements.

Shamanic practices go beyond being merely ancient methods for healing illness. They offer a worldview that can be described as 'non-ordinary.' From a philosophical standpoint, shamanism provides a formal framework for understanding what’s known as analogical thinking—a mode of thought as fundamental to shamanism as logical reasoning is to modern science.

Humans can likely be best understood when viewed through the wide lens revealed by their earliest responses to suffering, sickness, and death. This knowledge contributes significantly to wellbeing and health by fostering a practical and natural understanding of a person’s connection to themselves as a whole, including their environment and the ecosystem they inhabit. A shaman is a survivor who has, in one way or another, faced pain, illness, and death.

What makes shamanism particularly remarkable is its widespread presence among all the groups from which our ancestors descended. Although practiced today, these traditions engage with elemental forces, ancient symbols, and emotional references that have existed since humanity’s beginnings. The geographic spread of shamanic practices spans all five continents, underscoring their universal nature.

The worldview that shamans engage with can be understood through what psychology refers to as "altered states of consciousness." These states, typically entered through a transitional phase, are often described as a trance or a visionary journey. An altered state of consciousness clearly represents a transitional period between two ordinary states of awareness. Moreover, these altered states are usually divided into three distinct stages:

1) the transition into the altered state.
2) the altered state itself.
3) the return to normal waking consciousness.

These states are not only experienced by the healer but frequently by the person receiving help and others involved.

There are many different techniques for inducing altered states of consciousness, most of which do not rely on psychoactive substances. As a shaman gains experience, entering these states becomes easier—similar to how one masters relaxation methods through practice.

Throughout a typical day, our consciousness naturally fluctuates. During sleep, awareness changes notably, with distinct characteristics that vary at different stages. One theory suggests that some people can transition from waking consciousness directly into the dream world without progressing through the initial relaxation phases of sleep.

Shamanic activity can be likened to the work of an ancient psychiatrist or psychotherapist—especially considering that "psychotherapy is a means of expanding consciousness. It is a life-enhancing practice through which we assist ourselves and others in awakening from the stupor of unconsciousness and ignorance to realize our true nature" (Shainberg, 1993). Various definitions exist: - “Among Siberian and many worldwide groups with comparable beliefs, a shaman is a person believed to have powers to heal the sick and to communicate with the spirit world” (The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1989). - “An indigenous healer who deliberately alters their consciousness in order to gain knowledge and power from the spirit world, used to help and heal members of their tribe” (Krippner, 1988).

For the Ojibway people in Canada, a shaman is "a person, male or female, who experiences, assimilates, and communicates a unique form of support and healing power" (Grim, 1983).

They are also described simply as "those who master the ancient techniques of ecstatic trance" (Eliade).

Shamans are individuals believed to possess special powers, enabling them to communicate with spirits and influence them by separating their soul from their body. These spirits assist the shaman in tasks such as uncovering the causes of illness, famine, or misfortune, and prescribing the proper remedies. This role is found among Siberian and other Asian peoples and is present, under different names, in many other religions worldwide (The Cambridge Encyclopedia, 1990).

A shaman is "someone willing to confront the deepest fears and shadows of life." Depending on their success, they are considered "healers who have directly encountered the world of darkness and bravely faced their own shadows, as well as evil from others, enabling them to effectively work with both dark and light forces" (Sams, 1990).

A guide, a healer, a catalyst for social bonds, and the guardian of the Group’s myths and worldview (Walsh, 1990). The term also describes someone who is energetic, lively, or physically active, as well as a person capable of self-warming and dedicated to practicing austerities (Walsh, 1990).

A shaman is regarded as "a sacred archetypal practitioner whose profession bridges the realms of mythical imagination and everyday consciousness" (Larsen).

They are "individuals of any gender who maintain a special connection with spirits—understood as subtle, not easily detectable forces—and who can use that connection to influence those affected by these spirits" (Harner).

They are often described as "great magicians and priests among certain primitive peoples, especially in North Asia. The Siberian shamans are particularly well-known" (Dictionary of the O.C.; The Modern Handbook, 1985).

Shamanism is defined as "an eternal art of living in harmony with creation" (Matthews, in The Celtic Shaman, 1991). Three key elements characterize shamans:

They can consciously and willingly enter altered states of consciousness, during which they often experience themselves as "traveling" or journeying beyond their usual awareness.

He used those journeys as opportunities to gain knowledge and power, dedicating himself to helping the people in his community.” (Walsh, 1990).

To discover communities where shamanic practices are still alive today, one must venture to the edges of what we commonly define as the civilized world. These groups maintain a profound connection with the natural world—so much so that any disruption to this relationship diminishes our ability to fully comprehend the unique expressions and nuances of shamanism as it is truly practiced.

Today, to find individuals who still practice shamanism, one generally must venture to the fringes of what we consider the civilized world. Because shamanism is intricately tied to close relationships with nature, any threat to the natural environment diminishes our ability to fully understand its unique manifestations. The regions that have seen the rise of many civilizations and centralized urban societies tend to have fewer traces of shamanic practices. However, such practices survive among the Inuit (the self-designation of the northern Eskimos), the indigenous peoples of Tierra del Fuego at South America's southern tip, and among inhabitants of African, Asian, and American jungles as well as in remote deserts and mountainous areas.

Exploring the boundaries of shamanism raises the question: how do shamans differ from other caregivers such as priests, doctors, healers, magicians, sorcerers, and wizards?

The helper-helee relationship is a fascinating phenomenon because it reveals fundamental aspects of how each views the world and how both parties benefit from this exchange.
Depending on the characteristics of both the helper and the person being helped, as well as the nature of the issue—whether a problem or illness—certain parts of their respective worldviews, or "maps," are emphasized, explored, or highlighted. The scope of their interaction is defined by where these worldviews intersect.
These "maps" partially overlap to create the shared working space.

It is widely accepted in psychotherapy that a favorable treatment outcome is more likely when the patient’s fundamental worldview and values align with those of the therapist. While this alignment is less critical in surgical procedures, patients and their families often choose hospitals or surgeons based on shared values or perceived appropriateness influenced by the surgeon’s reputation and environment.

In any helping relationship, the potential for effectiveness increases when the beliefs—both theoretical and practical—of helper and person helped are mutually shared and participated in.

A) Priest and shaman. The shaman exists among the hunter-gatherer societies that preceded agriculture, and their knowledge primarily stems from personal, firsthand experience. In contrast, tradition and ritual play a less significant role in the shaman’s function than they do with priests, who operate within sedentary agricultural communities.

A key aspect of shamanic practice is entering an altered state of consciousness, which is essential for their work. Priests, on the other hand, do not need to change their state of consciousness to perform their duties.

Priests are embedded within more complex social groups and form part of a hierarchical, more centralized religious structure. The urban environments where they operate promote and demand more indirect forms of communication among citizens due to population growth. Population distribution and social organization tend to follow pyramidal structures. In contrast, nomadic groups in which shamanism thrives are less hierarchical, with interpersonal relationships that are more direct and “horizontal.” The social context of shamanism is less authoritarian regarding individual behavior, with fewer formal regulations governing personal morality.

These distinctions shouldn’t be understood rigidly but rather as general tendencies or common characteristics that can serve as broad guidelines.

There are figures who perform both priestly and shamanic roles. For example, the "marakame" (Huichol shaman) can embody either function, leaning more towards shamanism or priesthood depending on the circumstances (Harner).

Shaman and medium 

Both shamans and mediums claim to communicate with "spirits" in some way. Both involve changes in consciousness, which can sometimes be induced voluntarily. Generally, shamans exert stronger control over their spiritual interactions, often engaging in dialogue with spirits and wielding more power than mediums. Mediums tend to act in a more passive, receptive manner, adapting to what unfolds during their encounters. Shamans are perceived as being more empowered or authoritative in relation to the spirits.

According to Krippner (1980), it is possible to distinguish five categories among healers:

- Shamans
- Spiritists
- Esoteric healers
- Religious or ritual healers
- Intuitive healers

Shamanic practices can in some ways be understood as a distinctive type of mediumship. However, a key difference lies in their contexts and engagement: the medium typically operates within the urban environment, experiencing trance states that are more passive, allowing themselves to be guided entirely by spiritual forces. In contrast, the shaman draws from the natural, rural world as their foundation. Their trance or altered states of consciousness tend to be active and controlled experiences, where the shaman consciously maintains a level of awareness and direction throughout the process.

Harner emphasizes that a trance-like state is essential to shamanism, describing it as a "journey"—a shamanic state of consciousness. Once the trance ends, the shaman typically remembers the experience, whereas a medium does not always recall what occurred during their trance.

Based on these criteria, examining E. Cayce’s work reveals that he functioned not only as a medium but also, at times, took on the role of a shaman.

During her trance states, Cayce employed a technique known as "channeling," which involved entering a trance without possession. She understood this as a power or influence that one could consciously awaken within oneself. She emphasized achieving a trance state without being possessed:
"Do not allow yourself to be guided by an identity that claims to be your guide. Why? Because invoking the infinite is far greater, far more fulfilling, and more true to the soul’s experience than being directed by an external entity that, like me, represents only a transitional or developmental state" (Reed and Cayce, 1993).

A trance state without possession, for instance, is practiced among the Gnawas (see part III). Their movement into trance, described as kinetic trance, is an ancient technique that affects nearly all aspects of the individual, granting new forms and perspectives on self-experience. Through disinhibition, it becomes possible to reach states of fusion with the environment, which reflects a mirror image of the self.

Trance states involving possession are found across cultures—Africa, America, Europe, Asia, and Australia. In these states, the person is no longer entirely themselves. They become alienated, embodying another presence. During possession, an individual’s self-control diminishes alongside their awareness of the external world. Caribbean Voodoo trance states provide a clear example (see part III).

C) Medicine man and shaman. The curandero is recognized as someone capable of treating illnesses that inspire particular fear among the people, for which conventional medicine offers no more effective therapies (Brazilian Encyclopedia of Cultures, 1977).

The healer’s practice can be varied and unconventional. Their relationship with clients tends to be less open and direct than that of the shaman. Healers are more often found in rural areas than urban settings.

A shaman can be considered a type of healer, but not all healers qualify as shamans.

The magician and the shaman

Both create a sense of the extraordinary, breaking daily life’s routines and manipulating space and time—powers they share.

The world of magic is sometimes defined by an intensification of activity or specialized knowledge gained through extraordinary means. Magic can be classified as objective when its results can be quantified in some way, or subjective when the outcomes are imaginary or unverifiable (Ouspensky, 1944). According to Nevill Drury, shamans serve as both physical and spiritual healers in Aboriginal cultures worldwide, while wizards reflect these traditions’ images in modern culture. This highlights parallels between shamanism and the occult.

Today’s wizards, as portrayed in media such as television, film, and circus performances, may inspire the same awe as shamans once did, and their origins might even be traced back to those roots. However, they lack the essential healing purpose that defines shamanism.


E) The mystic and the shaman. Mystics can be seen as an informal group studied by psychologists because they repeatedly experiment on their own minds, observing the resulting mental changes. Using singing, music, meditation, and other techniques, they enter specific mental states. Remarkably, across many traditions, the commonalities they report greatly outweigh their differences. "Here, differences are more superficial than fundamental" (Clark, 1983). Many researchers, especially anthropologists, view shamanism as an ancient religious phenomenon centered on a figure who masters the art of ecstasy (Edwards, 1994).

Ecstasy is defined as a psychological state characterized by a profound feeling of rapture, intense joy, and sometimes a sense of detachment or alienation.

From a theological standpoint, ecstasy refers to a state of union with God or the divine, achieved through contemplation and love. This state is intimately experienced through a suspension, more or less complete, of sensory activity in relation to the external world.

This disconnection can be achieved in various ways. One example is the so-called nectar meditation of Tibetan Buddhism. During this practice, the meditator directs their attention to a very specific part of the body—the tip of the tongue. As the meditator focuses intensely on this point, they often experience a profound sensation of sweetness. Remarkably, through their own intuitive practice, Tibetan shamans known as Bon discovered this technique of concentrating attention to alter the state of consciousness. Today, we understand, based on objective findings observed through microscopes, that the very tip of the tongue is densely packed with sensory receptors that detect sweet flavors, while salty, spicy, or bitter tastes are sensed primarily by different regions of the tongue.

The experience of Ecstasy neither increases nor diminishes control. Other states described by mystics as intuitive knowledge may involve heightened control. According to Edwards (1994), Ecstasy occurs at several levels within a person: 1) it is grounded in a physiological and physical experience.

(2) it constitutes an emotional state. (3) it offers a unique form of perception, often described as intuitive insight.

(4) it represents a non-ordinary state of consciousness that adds a special dimension to these experiences.

Ecstasy can be categorized into four overlapping types that are not mutually exclusive. 

- Prophetic and mystical ecstasy.
- Shamanic ecstasy.
- Sexual ecstasy.
- Ecstasy induced by substances.

Mystics often describe an overwhelming, flowing presence of the divine. This grandeur has been poetically expressed by figures such as San Juan de la Cruz and Ibn Arabi. Through immersion in the divine presence, mystics sometimes experience anticipations of visionary events to come. Prophetic activity extends this divine presence into the future, thereby altering the present and prompting people to prepare. Sexual ecstasy is part of the orgasmic response, which involves a modified state of consciousness—sometimes brief, other times lasting longer—characterized by changes in bodily sensation, the perception of time, and various psychological variables. Tantrism, practiced within the frameworks of yoga or Buddhism, aims to expand consciousness by harnessing the alertness and focus generated during sexual activity via specific techniques. During the temporarily induced orgasmic state, a modified state of consciousness emerges, marked by alterations in bodily perception, time estimation, and other psychological aspects.

Ecstasy induced by substances may vary widely depending on their nature. The cultural context, personal expectations, and the manner of consumption profoundly influence the experience and the insights one gains from it.

Harner suggests that the term 'trance' is preferred among physicians, while 'ecstasy' carries theological and humanistic connotations, though both terms essentially refer to the same phenomenon. The moments of entering and exiting trance or ecstasy often resemble a crisis. In everyday language, entering a trance is colloquially identified with experiencing a crisis. In traditional Chinese thought, a crisis embodies both 'danger and opportunity.'

Profound changes in bodily experience can occur spontaneously during near-death situations. Sometimes shamans and magicians intentionally follow this route. Such changes can also be triggered by music, relaxation, or the use of specific substances (e.g., ayahuasca or certain fungi; see Ott, paragraph 1.5.2) among other methods. International literature describes many of these altered states as Out-of-Body Experiences (OBEs), which involve sensations of existing outside the physical body or 'traveling.' (See maps of modified states of consciousness.)

In mystics, these states are marked by intensified emotions and holistic thinking. In contrast, they are more about intensified actions and concrete thinking for shamans, as noted by Ouspensky.

According to Walsh, the direct, personal, and transformative experience characteristic of mysticism is also found in shamanism. However, such experiences are not always effectively transmitted and may lose their impact over time, devolving into empty, routine rituals. At their best, rituals—like art—manifest the active culmination of symbolic transformations of lived experience.

Many trance techniques used in rituals are employed as 'gates' at the beginning and end of ceremonies. Over time, as practitioners become familiar with these trance states, the rituals may gradually lose some of their immediacy and presence.

Rituals can help alleviate the distress caused by confronting the unknown or experiences that surpass individual understanding. Cognitively, they enhance participants' concentration by focusing attention; physically, they promote relaxation; and emotionally, they help regulate anxiety, feelings of helplessness, and expressions of anger.

From a clinical standpoint, particularly in cases of neurosis, obsessive (repetitive thoughts) and compulsive (repetitive compelled actions) behaviors serve as psychological mechanisms that reduce distress and forestall more severe disorders. Rituals related to order and cleanliness are especially common among perfectionist individuals and act as defense mechanisms against anxiety. Failing to perform these rituals can cause discomfort, whereas carrying them out often brings relief.

Mystics and shamans especially emphasize the transformative power of crises in general, with particular focus on the experience of death.

What is the goal? The activity aims to heal and cure. The very act becomes a remedy in itself, fostering a supportive relationship. Every undertaking has a purpose from the outset. The situation is usually experienced as both a challenge, deeply motivating, and a source of inspiration. Broadly speaking, its objectives may include: (1) restoring health; (2) cleansing; (3) purifying; (4) repairing; (5) improving the individual’s relationships with their community and environment; and (6) providing meaning to current events by explaining or reinterpreting them in a significant way. This work can address physical, emotional, cognitive, or social difficulties. What sets shamans apart from other helpers is their deliberate use of altered states of consciousness—that is, intentionally shifting attention with a precise purpose related to their work. This focus can become nearly absolute. When shamans intervene, whether on the body or in interpersonal relations, they consistently reference the 'spirit' world or the shamanic state of consciousness where their core work unfolds. Their interventions can be understood analogically across multiple levels. For example, the 'sweat lodge' ceremony (known in English as the 'sweat hut') aims at comprehensive purification—physical, emotional, and social. In places such as Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada, local Ojibwe traditions use this technique to treat alcohol and heroin addiction. Because these substances affect an individual's psyche, body, and social interactions, it makes sense that integrated treatments are more effective. It is also important to distinguish between a shaman and shamanism; not all acts performed by a shaman necessarily qualify as shamanic.

Non-shamans can also adopt or develop tasks based on these techniques. Central to shamanism is the ability to voluntarily enter a modified state of consciousness (the shamanic state of consciousness, or S.C.S.E.) for therapeutic or knowledge-seeking purposes and to retain memory of the experience afterward. How is this achieved? In shamanic practice, the disease itself becomes the pathway to therapeutic insight. Any illness and its healing can be understood through four stages: the preliminary situation or background, the onset and development of the problem, the crisis moment, and finally, recovery.

One way to understand the development of the shaman is to recognize that it unfolds through four stages, during which a person undergoes unusual experiences or exhibits strange physical signs unique to them. Periods of solitary reflection often occur during this process. The search for answers in voluntary isolation has been a method by which humans have gained fresh insights, reevaluated their problems, and maintained wisdom that transcends the ordinary. Among Native American tribes, this practice is known as the "vision quest." The planning and emergence of the problem are interpreted as a "call of the spirits," a special vocation marking the second stage. This calling can take various forms: (a) It may come through an illness. The best way to learn about an ailment is to engage with it directly—to practice, live through, or endure it intensely. Experiencing a problem firsthand is one of the primary ways of gaining knowledge about it. In the case of sickness, having overcome it successfully often serves as the foundation for understanding and managing similar issues. Those who recover become experts and living sources of knowledge about processes that have led them down unconventional life paths. Contact with pain and death serves as a powerful exposure to knowledge or a need to understand critical moments. The shaman is often described as the "wounded healer," where physical or emotional scars symbolize their transformative journey toward healing knowledge. This idea extends to psychoanalysts who undergo their own internal analysis before helping others, or individuals in self-help groups who share personal experiences and offer firsthand wisdom to support others. (b) Another form of calling is the "family shamanic" tradition. Being close to and learning from models within one’s family or community greatly facilitates the learning process. Shamans often live and work in the same place and within the same group or family, where experience is traditionally transmitted. This system especially thrives in areas requiring craftsmanship or specialized skills.

This family vocation may pass down matrilineally, as in the case of the Voguls, or patrilineally, like among the Ostyaks of the Samoyed people and Siberians (Tondrian, 1964).

(c) Beyond the previous two, there are other types of calls generally attributed to "spirits," which carry deep personal significance. Often, such a call is perceived as coming "from above." In shamanic cosmology, the sky and mountains represent the upper world—more intellectual and spiritual—while what lies beneath the water or earth symbolizes the lower world, more physical in nature. The space between these two worlds is not only where the shaman lives but also the realm of everyday consciousness. The call aims to inspire concrete actions that can alter daily reality. This summons might come through dreams, extraordinary events, or emerge amidst individual or communal crises that demand radical solutions. Sometimes the call is anticipated but never happens. For example, in November 1995, the highly regarded U.S. General Powell declined to run for president, saying, "The race for the presidency requires a call I have not yet heard." In many cultures—Brahmin, Balinese, Indonesian, among others—the mountain is a sacred place. By analogy, ascending to a higher state during contact with such places or during visionary experiences allows one to connect with beneficial realities, gain self-understanding, or discover remedies for various issues. The philosopher Antonio Escohotado emphasizes that silence, observation, and contemplation are the creative forces present here. Nature’s original power seems to radiate from the individual who answers the call, allowing them to create a "pause in time" or "break from life’s routines" (Castañeda, 1977). This withdrawal from previous activity comes after dedicated involvement in the healing process and acts as both remedy and incubation for future work. The emergence of a fully formed shaman signifies the moment a person transforms into a "being of knowledge"—someone who has journeyed, returned, and now serves as a healer after profound change. The spirit of pilgrimage, found in vast gatherings at Mecca, Rome, Jerusalem, Santiago de Compostela, Guadalupe, and countless other sites worldwide, consistently symbolizes deep and enriching personal transformation. Recognizing its significance, some cultures, like the Muslim world, change or add to a person’s name upon completing such milestones (see Part Three of this work for discussion on changes in identity and creation of altered states of consciousness based on Tart’s 1975 model).

Knowledge can be seen as an end in itself—a value worth pursuing purely for its own sake. Yet, its true value often emerges when it balances with feeling. For example, Buddhism as practiced in Thailand or Ceylon emphasizes the development of wisdom alongside compassion. The wise individual who has returned from insight is primarily valued—this embodies an intellectual ideal. However, a subtle but crucial distinction exists between contemplation and compassion, marking the difference between mere understanding and active assistance. In Tibetan Buddhism, or Lamaism, compassion inspires aid to others; it arises from a mystical understanding that values all life and chooses to respond with care. Other forms of Buddhism, such as those in Thailand, place greater importance on compassion itself, emphasizing emotional values over intellectual consideration. Different human groups, over time and through reflection on illness and the shamanic journey, may experience variations in this process. These differences tend to be more in number or detail rather than substance, more quantitative than qualitative. Thus, for instance, Celtic shamanism may identify a larger number of stages or significant moments in the learning path (see Matthews). Systematic self-reflection or self-awareness about being a shaman is traditionally a relatively recent development in the evolution of this practice.

The shaman's activity originates from an instinctive, not necessarily reflective, impulse to help others. Alongside this impulse, continuous experience cultivates a sense of wisdom and clarity about the specific roles one must develop. Life itself, with all its challenges, teaches the shaman not to ascribe excessive absolute importance to himself, though he may hold significant relative importance. This stance is crucial because the shaman understands that his power in confronting nature is limited and relative. At the same time, he possesses knowledge of things unknown to most, and this wisdom can prove vital during times of crisis. If a person's stature can be measured by the magnitude of what angers them, then the shaman is truly great—for he dares to confront spirits and the forces of nature. Knowledge and the supportive relationships he builds could foster pride or a sense of superiority, but by maintaining humility, the shaman can act with greater efficiency and flawlessness, as Carlos Castañeda observed. From this perspective, a woman's role within neo-shamanism becomes clearer through her own words: "I am not a healer. I heal no one. My concept of myself is part of my own path of self-discovery. I want to create a space where people can learn how incredibly wonderful they are, teaching them to love themselves" (Inez; 1991). Personal and shared adversity serve as stimuli that hone one's sensitivity and growth. For Amber Wolfe, healing means simply to "cure—is." Within this framework, the shaman’s quintessential gift—healing—is viewed as the ability to facilitate healing in others. She describes the shaman as a "catalyst," borrowing a chemical term for a substance that accelerates transformation reactions without being consumed in the process. The shaman’s confrontation with life’s extremes—disease, fear, death, agony, and ecstasy—makes him simultaneously courageous and able to shed self-importance (Castañeda, 1977). Narcissism stands opposed to this path of wisdom, as it blinds a person to reality and the feelings of others. A sense of humor serves as a good measure of whether someone has transcended their ego. Álvaro Estrada’s book, "Life of Maria Sabina, the Wise Woman of Fungi" (Editorial Siglo XXI, 1977), offers a vivid illustration of this way of being and living. Indeed, pride, fear, power, and death are natural enemies of the shaman—and yet these are the challenges he must confront repeatedly, right up until his final dance with death (Castañeda, 1977). This work is the culmination of a long journey—an exploration into the essence of shamanism—intended to serve as a bridge connecting the unknown world of the shamans with the lives of ordinary people. It spans the divide between shamans who have passed through time yet remain present; between closed records and open interpretation; between the old, captured in historical images, and the new; between past and present. It also aims to be a bridge linking distant cultures together.